Integration of 3D Printing With Building Information Modelling

History has shown in several instances that rising complexity in building & construction technology is a marker of advancing civilisation, more complex building technology and building maaterial signifying more recent development. This phenomenon is as a response to the evolving human individual and public needs of each era, no matter how slow such evolution seems to be in comparison with other industries. The 21st century is no stranger to far ranging developments in practically every industry. The building construction and design has not been untouched by the advent of revolutionary technology most evident in the last four to six decades. Mechanisation has taken an upswing to give room for information and communication technology (ICT), machine learning, deep learning, digital modelling and simulation and artificial intelligence to the hitherto traditional building technologies. 

Hitherto traditional forms of building construction (such as woodwork, masonry, bricklaying etc) have been criticised for its several flaws as being offshoots of archaic methods; the long, time-expensive procedures and bureaucracy, waste, high and still rising costs due to inflation, labour inefficiency and the large number of manual labourers often involved in such building projects, the lack of a guarantee in design and structural quality, the high rate of accidents and fatalities recorded on construction sites, overproduction as well as harmful impact to the environment. The latter is often due to the extraction of non-replaceable raw materials from the earth and subsequent depletion of the Earth's resources; the energy-inefficient manufacturing process; the shipping of raw materials; the use and potential toxicity of such materials and the resultant increase in carbon emissions are a factor in the climatic changes that have occasioned the issues we've seen today. 

Though the architecture and construction industries have seen significant impact due to technology, it has mainly been in mega, commercial construction. Technological growth in the individualized, day-to-day small scale building construction hasn't been a lot (apart from mechanisation and the greater use of hand-held power tools) due to deeply rooted paradigms and practices. The need for sustainability in building construction and design processes in individual and public infrastructure (individual and mass housing, bridges, offices, prisons, hospitals/morgues, public service infrastructure etc) vis-a-vis the growing rate of urban migration and development has necessitated the incorporation of innovative, creative new technologies that show the potential to become the foundation for the buildings of the future. 

Of this spectrum, Building Information Modelling (BIM) and 3D printing are two technologies that have recently changed the way structures and building components are designed, fabricated and constructed.

Building Information Modelling (BIM)

Building Information Modelling (BIM) is one of the more modern, promising and recent devlopments affecting the architecture, construction and engineering industries, mainly due to its multifunctional and multipurpose nature. 

Building Information Modelling has been defined as "a modelling technology and associated set of processes {involved in} to produce, communicate and analyse building models". It's also been described as a new software that helps describe and display the design the information required for the design, construction and operation of constructed facilities. 

Although there isn't a universally recognised definition of what BIM is, it is agreed that it is a way of designing, constructing, operating, managing and maintaining a structure that allows for collaboration between all stakeholders involved in all of the above processes. Beyond being described as a singular action, digital model, software application or an intangible concept, the reality is that Building Information Modelling is a process that combines information, communication protocols and technology to create a digital representation of a project and is designed to generate and manage building data from the earliest stages of conception to design, through construction to demolition of the project. It does this by the construction of an accurate, virtual model with the physical and functional characteristics of the facility itself and monitoring such throughout the the buildng's life cycle. The Information part of BIM comes into play here through the creation of a shared, collaborative knowledge bank containing every relevant fact about the project, such as design details; geometric and non-geometric progress information, construction components and materials, and maintenance schedules that provide a basis for any decisions that are made during the entire life cycle of the project. A BIM would typically go through progressive iterations throught the project life cycle. The Project Information Model, which demonstrates design intent is the first form of the model. Then this is developed and further refined into a virtual construction model and finally becomes an Asset Information Model, developed for use within operation phases. All of these models demonstrate the fluid flow of data use. 

One of the biggest advantages of BIM software is that it allows for structures to be virtually modelled, before being physically constructed, thereby enabling necessary analyses, sequencing and improvements to be made to the project in a digital environment,which is considerably cheaper than making such changes in a physical model. Its ability to facilitate collaboration between all project participants and stakeholders; grom the architect down right to the investors and governments. The exchange of information and knowledge and free flow of communication allows for timely improvements and adjustments of the design scheme, which in turn creates a better end product for the user. If the data created is not shared and communicated effectively, then the model cannot be regarded as being a Building Information Model. The Open BIM approach is what allows for the exchange of information in BIM. Here, data and linked project documents, that would otherwise have no relative value if not shared, are exchanged through technologically transparent standards and workflows. Open BIM allows for universal project participation for members at all times, creates a common language for usage, prevents multiple inputs of similar data and provides an enduring building data bank that can be used as a reference point throughout the asset's life cycle. 

When combined with technologies like 3D printing, the BIM technology has significantly greater impact than when used alone. 

3D Printing in Construction 

Generally, the advent of 3D printing has been avowed as one of the greatest technological advances made in the 21st Century has found progressively popular usage in many industries, from transportation, aviation, healthcare, gene research and technology, automobile engineering, architecture to art. Although the construction industry has been largely impervious to technological inventions advanced over the last century or so, 3D printing is currently being explored as a veritable medium to explore alternative methods of building construction and design. 

3D printing technology allows for the creation of three-dimensional, physical images and objects by superimposing successive layers of materials, directly from a digital model. In 3D printing, a digital model is created using software; the model is then sliced into layers which are laid on top of each other to create a tangible object (as opposed to just a representation) by means of a 3D printer, all in a highly automated process. This technology gives users the ability to create objects based on highly personalised models and accurate, without requiring nything other than the component materials required for the creation of the designed object, this preventing waste and reducing cost. It must be noted that 3D printing processes require software, hardware and component materials to create a 3D printed model. Different types of 3D printers employ different technologies, which process different materials in different ways. 

3D printing in construction is known as additive manufacturing or additive construction, and utilizes advanced technology through highly automated processes to manufacture construction elements by means of a 3D printer. Given that the most popular construction material is concrete, which is easy to source and maintain, and relatively inexpensive, 3D concrete printing technology is a developing iteration of 3D printing technology that is applied in concrete construction. A predefined construction element in a digital model is manufactured; the concrete is then poured through a printing nozzle that does not need any forwork or subsequent vibration, this minimizing waste and reducing costs. 

The technologies of Building Information Modelling and 3D construction printing are, individually, great boons to the construction industry, as they assist construction practitioners in enhancing the quality of industrialised, residential and everyday construction. However, taken together, they are a powerful force that hasten the arrival of the building of the future. 

Integration of BIM and 3D Printing

Building Information Modelling is an Information and Communication Technology empowered tool that can be synchronized with 3D printing assembly to create efficient buildings at a faster rate. The combo of both technologies is a relatively new approach that, when carried out accurately, takes fully the advantages of each system to create a unique building methodology that has the capacity to form unconventional and highly complex structures, small or large scale, with great efficiency and less effort. 

In this new approach, the BIM software creates a digital model (made to user specific/exact user demand requirements as to design, planning and construction) and feeds the data (algorithmically, via its data workflow and fluid data transfer) into a 3D printer. The BIM software provides the building model information and the printer follows the path. The BIM data is converted into a code that can be read by the 3D printer, also with the aid of software, in order to realize the production process. Through BIM software, the printer can realize changes or errors in real time and improves the visibility of the graphics of the objects in the model without having to restart the code or split the design into different files. After the path has been completely laid down, the 3D model is visually displayed for any further modifications, improvements or monitoring. 

In 3D concrete printing, robotic technology is utilized to improve the quality of the final product. Usually in form of an arm, the robot is equipped with a nozzle which is fed with the construction component material (in this case, a concrete and composite mixture, usually thicker than regular concrete), and extrudes it in layers and layers according to the specific dimensions of the input code, directly generating the actual building or component parts that are to be made. Real-time data can also be transmitted through the BIM system to achieve a dynamic management process for the purposes of quality control. 

Advantages Of BIM & 3D Printing Integration

• Accuracy and Flexibility: With the aid of 3D printing technology, designers can create models that are accurate and meet the exact specifications of the project. Customised designs, which have interestingly complex shapes, can be created via 3D construction printing, as 3D printers can achieve shapes that might not be readily achieved by conventional construction. Customised components and designs that enhance functionality and aesthetics be added to the building model. 

• Reduced time and cost: Because changes to the building model can be viewed and made upfront before printing, 3D printing in the long run is less expensive. Labour costs are also highly reduced and a building which might take months or weeks to create using conventional building methods is constructed in far lesser time than that. 

• Collaboration: Building Information Modelling allows for the efficient participation of all project stakeholders to modify designs, trade information, identify and resolve all potential issues. The structure is made to exact demands of the stated requirements. 

• Reduced risk of onsite injuries and fatalities due to a smaller labour force and the high automation of the process. 

• Less waste and greater sustainability: Because printed materials require only as much as is needed to construct the buildings, there is a reduced need for environmental resources and less wastage of resources excavated. 

Challenges Of BIM & 3D Printing Integration

• Expensive: Neither 3D printers nor BIM software is cheap. Learning can also be costly. 

• Lack of skilled pool: As it stands, the need for human intervention in the operation of both BIM and 3D printing software is ever present. Due to how uncommon the technology is, it is hard to find ready, cost-effective personnel who can manage and utilize each technology well enough. And when they're available, they're in high demand and expensive to hire. 

• Recognition: The field of BIM and 3D Construction printing needs to be better recognised by investors, manufacturers, researchers, constructors, designers and other industry participants alike for more exploration, research and funding into more specific areas of 3d construction printing such as green printing with waste component material, evaluating various forms of resistance and forming new BIM applications. 

• Due to how new the field is, the standards for this field have not been actualized yet. 

• With the advent of this technology, a lot of manual labourers in the construction industry are on the line to lose their jobs, which can lead to increased rate of unemployment and a hit to a nation's economy. 

3D Printing and BIM integration is a new field and is not popular for commonplace use. In fact, it is hard to imagine that 3D printing and BIM would replace traditional construction methods in the next few years. However, the technology is currently in use in developed countries for the creation of public infrastructure such as bridges in China. Its use is a net positive and brings great convenience at any time. Coupled with its other advantages, this technology is on the way to being the foundation for the building of the future.

Intelligent Traffic Management Systems

Over the recent years which have seen the spread of technological developments to most parts of the world, there is a steady rise in the number of people who conduct their daily movements with vehicles. Vehicles powered by gasoline, diesel and fossil fuels are gradually being replaced by futuristic vehicles powered by solar energy, electricity and even water, in a bid to forestall the effects of greenhouse emissions  by the older vehicle models on the ozone layer. Once upon a time, the swing of a police baton, an upraised hand belonging to a traffic beat cop or the upward, aloft position of a red, hexagonal traffic sign with the word “STOP” in bold print was enough to control traffic flow at a busy intersection. Unfortunately, the regular updates in road construction have not translated into more modern and equally nuanced systems to man the complex vehicles plying the roads. Without an efficient, greener traffic management system to keep up with increasingly congested roads, operations utilizing vehicular movements would become laborious and result in a net negative for the environment.

The solution? Enter Intelligent Traffic Management Systems (ITMS, as referred to in some circles). In simple terms, Intelligent Traffic Management Systems refer to any kind of contemporary smart solution or technological adaptation that provides innovative, technology-driven services related to the organizing, arranging and controlling of vehicular, cyclists and pedestrian traffic in a bid to enable safer, more orderly and more effective use of road transport networks.  

Components of an ITMS

An Intelligent Traffic Management System requires an ecosystem of connectivity, hardware and software technologies involved in data collection, data transmission, data analysis and processing, data conversion and information transmission to road users. 

a.  Data Collection:

The collection of data is an important function in the management of traffic, as the retrieval of data obtained through hardware located in and connected to road network forms the basis for prediction and analysis of traffic conditions. Hardware components collecting data for analysis do so via surveillance, traffic count, speed tracking, pinpointing areas recording traffic lags, delays and congestion, evaluating vehicle parameters and recording road conditions, amongst other methodologies. 

b.  Data Transmission:

Data obtained through the above listed mediums is transmitted securely via specified, highly-protected wireless pipeline to public and private traffic management system centers for storage and analysis. 

c.  Data Analysis and Processing: 

Using complex optimization algorithms, machine learning, deep learning technologies, cloud computing and edge computing, massive proportions of retrieved data are processed, structured and checked for errors before being converted. 

d. Data Conversion:

After being analyzed and thoroughly checked, processed data is converted to relevant, intelligible information in the form of statistics, graphs, gradient and predictions which when interpreted provide real-time traffic information for end road users. 

e.  Information Transmission to End Users:

At this point, interpreted data which is essentially real time traffic information is disseminated to everyday road users via different modes of mass communication including mobile apps, traffic advisory radio, cellular-phone broadcast messages, variable direction signs and text panels, news broadcast, pre-trip information carriers such as bulletins and newsletters and individual driver information systems amongst other media platforms. After all, transportation systems are essentially networks that thrive on information. The knowledge obtained through disseminated information can help road users identify critical traffic situations and decide on the most appropriate control actions to be taken. 

Intelligent Traffic Management Systems adapt information and communication systems through the principal elements of technology; hardware and software, to create innovative solutions for traffic flow and management. 

Hardware components that facilitate ITMS include:

• Sensors (air quality sensors, temperature sensors, IoT sensors)

• Inductive loops

• Microphones

• Automatic Identification Data Collection tags

• Edge devices

• Anchor sensing nodes

• Ramp meters

• Connected video cameras

• Connected traffic light systems etc.

Software mechanisms involve in ITMS include: 

• Big data and predictive analysis tools to plan and optimize traffic flow

• Artificial Intelligence

• Machine and Deep Learning Technologies

• Cloud computing technologies

• Algorithms

• Wireless Networks 

• Edge computation

• Geographic Information Systems

• Location-based services

• Global Positioning System (GPS)

• Bluetooth systems

• Traffic data platform/data lakes

• RFID (Radio Frequency Identification and Data collection) etc.

A combination of the above systems, along with connectivity, allows the road to: 

1. Detect incidents (such as car crashes, road blockages, illegal parking and so on) when they happen.

2. Transmit alerts to the main Intelligent Traffic Management System.

3. Automatically execute a sequence of already programmed follow up actions such as providing public transportation apparatus with alternative routes, dispatching emergency traffic services, updating nearby drivers amongst other control actions. 

Advantages of an ITMS

The benefits of introducing smart technology to prevailing traffic management systems can only be described as enormous. 

1. The use of predictive planning techniques and proliferation of real time dissemination of traffic information greatly reduces laborious movement and logistics. The restoration of orderliness and free flowing vehicular movement to highway networks enhances day to day mobility and becomes a source of convenience for road users. For instance, the accurate prediction of future traffic flow helps synchronize traffic signals to ensure the smooth flow of the overall traffic of the city. An update on travel time can help people select the mode of transportation that can help them reach their destinations as quickly as they can. This is especially important for public transportation and regional emergency response systems.  

2. Traffic congestion often occurs when road usage increases. However, the quick detection of accidents, delays and other road incidents; creation of priority for emergency vans and reduction of vehicular waiting time at traffic signals enabled via smart traffic management mechanisms help to decrease and to a large extent, avoid traffic congestion. 

3.  Intelligent Traffic Management Systems, when deployed, have a domino effect on every sphere of the society and economy. A reduction of traffic congestion, for instances, translates to a reduction of queues, increased transportation speed, reduced travel durations; which in turn leads to a reduction in commuter fatigue; directly resulting in reduced stress levels causing greater productivity and operational performance for citizens and increased tourism by transients. In essence, wise allocation of state resources to smart traffic management influences economic development. 

4. Intelligent Traffic Management Systems are a notable component of safer and greener urban environments. All of the features of a smart traffic management system are designed as traffic congestion control mechanisms.  Sustainable transportation have a lower incidence of CO2 emissions per journey and greenhouse gas proliferation. As a result of lesser time wasted in traffic congestion, air quality is safer; pollution is reduced; carbon footprints are reduced; billions of gallons of fuel are saved; road infrastructure is less prone to damage due to fewer occurrences of natural disasters; climate neutrality is achieved and the world is a better place. 

Challenges of Intelligent Traffic Management Systems

Several concerns have been raised about the use of smart traffic management systems and the resultant impact on urban transportation systems. 

1. Existing traffic management and control systems in many localities show higher rates of error when handling copious, critical amounts of traffic and traffic conditions. Due to the constant movement of vehicles in large-sized urban areas; accuracy, reliability and adequacy of data collected by the limited-capacity current traffic control systems can be in question. Without accurate data collection, real-time traffic advisory is unreliable and can end up being ignored by road users.  

2. Flowing from the advent of rapidly evolving and heterogeneous traffic management architecture (e.g. new route guidance systems), there is a need for increased support tools to help cope with the information extracted from these facilities and resulting traffic management plans. Furthermore, due to the unequal rate of standard developments for different components of the transportation system, more collaborative research needs to be done for ITMS mechanisms to work with all devices.

3. Privacy issues are also a growing concern. With the advent of vehicle to vehicle communication, vehicle to infrastructure communication and the use of Bluetooth, cellular networks and GPS tracking to transmit traffic information to traffic management centers, all data collected from vehicles must be passed on via highly secure routes. If not done securely enough, huge tranches of data potentially containing sensitive information about individual vehicles and the identity of their owners can be intercepted by black hackers and identity thieves. ITMS research must also include measures for safety and cyber-security.

4. Day-to-day operations of traffic management centers still involve human intervention. Most centralized traffic control systems are being manned by human personnel, irrespective of how sophisticated and advanced such systems are. 

The Future of ITMS 

With the growing inroads made by AI and machine learning research, it is expected that Artificial Intelligence systems capable to reason about human traffic behavior, in the manner of human expert traffic operators, would be developed and deployed. In the meantime, the following inventions are already coming to life in advanced societies: 

• Smart junction optimization systems 

• Smart parking systems in communication with driverless cars 

• Dynamic, smart traffic light signals with custom controls

• Multi-agent, autonomous traffic information advisory systems (think ChatGPT, but for transportation)

• Advanced, real-time safety and pollution analytics

• Electronic road pricing and toll payment for smart cars 

These options once sounded futuristic and like scenes from science fiction movies, but the future is never ever as far off as it seems.

Big Data Analysis in Transportation

In today's world, global rates of urban development have increased rapidly. It is estimated that by 2030, about 70% of the world's population would reside in urban areas. Rapid urbanisation, as a result of internal migration, population growth and a resultant increase in the number of vehicles plying roads, is a major precursor of intense pressure on public transportation systems and infrastructure. Challenges like increased pollution, road accidents, traffic congestions have arisen in the burgeoning denser metro areas with crowded roads. Events like the recent COVID-19 pandemic and the fast effects of global warming and climate change have hastened calls for decarbonization and increased efficiency of the transportation system. While transportation deficiencies is a global problem faced by all of the world's megacities, there isn't a singular framework that has been adopted to correct them. This is because no two urban megacities are the same. 

Enter the advent of technology. Areas that have recorded massive changes due to ICT advancements include transportation and urban planning, either through groundbreaking research and the creation of practical industry solutions. An updated transport structure is essential in every megacity to keep up with the present volume of traffic of those cities. Innovations like smart cities, Intelligent Transport Systems, Internet of Things (IoT), advanced traffic information systems, autonomous, connected, electric and shared vehicles, surveillance systems, wireless network communy, integrated rail systems, navigation systems amongst others are symbols of the technological inventions that have transformed global transportation systems in recent decades. However, these interventions pose another connundrum which is more complex and tougher to tackle in order to demystify into proper transport planning systems. 

A complex characteristic of today's society is the sheer amount of data generated daily by commuters, from data generated from modern channels such as transaction histories, social media feeds, ride sharing mobile applications, customer feedbacks, tracking and surveillance systems, data obtained by hardware, firmware and roadware, navigation apps, smart cards, ticketing systems to the traditional modes of data collection such as sensors and customer surveys. 

The size of the data poses another problem as the process of collecting, storing, sorting, extracting and processing enormous data sets is incredibly cumbersome. This is complicated by the fact that the data to be processed and managed is obtained from multiple channels and in different formats. For instance, travel patterns of commuters across different modes are to be collected and organised into neat traffic flows for optimal transport planning and traffic system. Traditional data processing and data management methods are often labour-intensive, expensive and due to the high rate of human interference, subject to many errors. This is an especially problematic in the context of developing countries. 

Thanks to transportation data analytics, commuters in modern cities now have better access to real-time traffic information such as trip distances and estimated commute times, blocked routes, accidents on routes, routes with traffic congestion and alternative routes, amongst other uses. 

However, though the data revolution has made it possible to generate, collect, store and analyze huge data sets, many modern cities still struggle with underdeveloped transportation infrastructure and developments, which are, incidentally, developing at a rate slower than data advancements. 

What is Big Data?

Big Data often refers to data sets so large and complex that cannot be managed anymore by traditional data processing applications and traditional data management tools. Due to the influx of generated data, huge data sets have to be captured, processed, stored and managed efficiently within acceptable time frames. 

A single Big Data set can range from a few dozen terabytes to several petabytes and exabytes. One Petabyte is equal to 1,024 Terabytes or 1 million Gigabytes. An Exabyte contains about 1,024 Petabytes and over 1 quintillion Bytes. Petabytes and exabytes are enormous data sets which are only used by large companies. 

Big Data can also refer to structured and unstructured data generated naturally as a result of activities in transportation usage, including transactional, operational, planning and social data obtained from either traditional or new sources. 

Big Data is often defined in the context of certain characteristics that serve as the main criteria that differ Big Data and usual sizes of data. The Gartner research defines the characteristics of Big transport and mobility Data in factors described as 3Vs: 

• Volume: Increase in the amount of data, as a result of the increased number of channels for obtaining and collecting data. Big Data refers to huge data sets that can jeopardise their collection, management, processing and analysis by traditional approaches within reasonable times. Due to massive deployment of sensors in vehicles, wearables, cell phones and other devices, the volume and coverage of sensed transportation data have become increased and more granular. The challenge with large volumes of data is how the relevance of all gathered and stored data is determined. 

• Velocity: The speed of data coming in and being disseminated between their source to their destinations. Large volumes of data flow in at unprecedented speeds,  must be dealt with in lightning speeds and must be disseminated real-time updates to road users. Big Data allows the analysis of data while being generated, without even storing them in databases. The challenge is to seek effective ways to manage data in a timely manner. 

• Variety: The broad range of data types and formats. The diversity of data sources make the types and formats in which the data is represented extremely varied. Managing large amounts of different data is the challenge in this context. 

Other V-themed characteristics include Variability (frequent changes of data that complicated to decipher their exact meaning within context), Value (the implicit potential of Big Data to provide efficient, safer and cleaner transport and mobility systems) and Veracity. 

According to Gartner, "Big Data is high volume, high velocity and/or high variety information assets that require new forms of processing to enable enhanced decision making, insight discovery and process optimisation."

The process of analyzing Big Data in Intelligent Transport Systems includes several stages: 

• Data acquisition: relates to the collection of the huge volume of raw data captured from specific data sources and signals, converting the samples in digital values that can be manipulated and bringing such digital data into the processing flow of a given data system. 

• Data processing: involves the cleansing and sorting through of data obtained from the various sources, removing redundant errors within the data sets and storing the data for further processing and aggregation.

• Data aggregation: includes the conversion of processes and data sets from an unstructured/semi-structured set to a structured set . Data is gathered, organised and expressed in a summary form that can lead to the discovery of patterns and trends. 

• Data delivery: Analysed and transmitted data is organised, presented and transmitted to end users. 

USES OF BIG DATA IN TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS

Big Data technologies help the government and private/public transportation companies to provide high-quality services, optimize operations and cut unnecessary costs while achieving these results with precise accuracy. 

Specific instances where big data analytics are being utilized in the transportation system include: 

1. Transportation Forecasting: 

Before making a commute within the city via road before the advent of data management and analysis, the usual commuter behaviour was to predict travel time and traffic conditions by relying on nothing more than environmental conditions, mass media bulletins and hunches. However, big data technology has made it possible for accurate predictions about commute time and other necessary traffic information within minutes. 

Historical data gathered from mobile network operators (call detail records, shared smartphone location data); vehicle data (navigation apps or in-car navigation displays); public transportation usage (ticketing systems, e-payment smart cards) can be fused, analysed with the use of statistical tools and simulation techniques to predict traffic flow and accurate forecasts. With Big Data analytics, there is no need for amalgamation as one of these data sets can provide the precise information needed. 

2. Traffic Congestion Management and Commute Optimization: 

Traffic congestion is one of the major problems of urban cities and a source of worry for urban planners. It is associated with reduced productivity levels, reduced economic development, higher stress levels and increased levels of air pollution through heightened greenhouse emissions. However, no city is proven to be completely congestion free, in spite of the many ambitious ideas to solve it as proposed by city managers and road users alike. 

However, with Big Data analytics, traffic flow can be improved. Big Data technologies can be combined with IoT technology to collect information about traffic flow, send such data sets for analysis using machine learning algorithms and real-time traffic information can then be transmitted digitally to passengers' phones. Alternate routes can then be introduced to reduce traffic flow and offset congestion. 

Big Data can also be utilized to locate congestion factors such as inefficient parking layouts, improve traffic light signal timing and advance multi-modal transportation options and routes. This allows for even distribution of traffic flow along different routes. One megacity that has successfully hacked the traffic congestion problem is Singapore, which, through the help of Big Data analytics in transport planning has designed a highly efficient transportation route layout and integrated its citywide bus network with the rail system to promote multimodal journeys for commuters. 

An optimization of routing, in turn, leads to better travel times, lower levels of stress in commuters, decreased fuel consumption and minimizes the carbon footprint, thus reducing pollution. 

3. Road Infrastructure and Vehicle Infrastructure Management: 

Given that road repair and development is one of the most frustrating and often delayed measures taken in a transportation system, one of the innovative solutions posed by Big Data technologies is the provision of a way for gathering information about transport infrastructure. Using mobile app technology, data about infrastructure issues can be sent by residents and commuters who have spotted deficiencies in the roads surfaces in form of photos and videos. Residents can also make a note of jolts and potholes and the app can use the smartphone's accelerometer to detect the precise location of these faults. As a result, such problems can be corrected at an early stage, saving costs that might have otherwise been incurred if the repairs had occurred at a later stage. 

The need for vehicle wellness and maintenance through wear analysis by Big Data, through data collected from sensors that are installed in the vehicles. These sensors provide real time information about the vehicle's performance, travel speeds, transit time and engine idling periods. Sensors also monitor the health of the entire engine of the vehicle. Errors and faults that might otherwise have compromised the safety of the user can be predicted and timely preparations for maintenance can be made. 

4. Logistics and Supply Chain Management: 

Big data technologies provide for real-time route optimization for freight companies by speeding up the rate of deliveries. Satellite navigation technology helps freight trucks, airplanes and ships to be tracked. The collection of this form of data, instant processing and analysis is done in a manner that helps workers to make quick routing choices by monitoring the location of the freight vehicle and location for delivery, speed of the vehicle, break times and driver capabilities. Identifying the best routes for delivery facilitates quicker delivery times. Where the consumer changes their delivery address, Big Data technology allows the driver to find optimal routes to the new destination with ease. Other ways by which Big Data solves transport logistics issues is through the reduction of idle mileage for freight transport and the identification of additional windows in routes for passing loading of partially filled trucks. Deliveries can be done in a reliable, efficient and transparent manner, which improves the service-customer partnership and trust. 

Big Data analytics is not without its own challenges and developments. 

Data privacy is a huge focus for most persons. Although individual commuter and road user transportation data as obtained from mobile and smartphone resources can be anonymized and protected, many persons do not trust authorities or app suppliers. Also, a data lake containing information on an entire population's identities, vehicles and daily movements is a prime target for hackers. Perceptions of privacy are highly likely to influence the value of big data. Regulations have been passed to protect data privacy, including geographic location data which is associated with a device with individual identification. However, individuals are more susceptible to sharing their location data if they are younger or if they perceive a clear benefit in doing so. 

Big Data is also set to affect the skill sets required to work in the transport industry in future. As operations get more and more complicated, improvement in service and efficiency would depend more on systems and data, which would be required to be seamless. Systems would be developed to eventually master these processes better than human counterparts. Artificial Intelligence and robotics have started making strides in this direction. There would be lesser dependence on operators' skills and knowledge, and the needed skill sets would then move to data specialist to manage performance. The key is to make sure that these skills sets are available in the right quantity and in sufficient level.

Intelligent Transport Systems

Since the advent and creation of smart cities; safe, sustainable urban areas that promote economic growth and enhance the quality of life for people living and working in them through the deployment of connected information technologies, there has always been the question of how to use Information Communication Technology to improve the hitherto existing limitations of critical city infrastructure in key areas such as traffic and public transportation systems, utility and waste management, information management, preservation and conservation of cultural artefacts, housing and urban planning, power grids and energy optimization, health infrastructure, administration and governance, legal, construction, manufacturing and agriculture. Beyond being a way of increasing operational efficiency of city infrastructure, smart cities help to cope with rapid urbanization of cities and towns in a world with a growing population and alleviate the environmental and climate concerns that come with this growth. 

The intentional development of an intelligent transport network comes from a recognition that the future of transportation in a rapidly integrated and connected world lies beyond the simple, physical construction and repair of new roads with concrete and steel. The real essence of transportation systems is in its connectivity with other areas of citizen life. The value of this connectivity is based on obtaining and sharing of relevant information (intelligence, you might presume) that empowers participants and users to make better informed transportation decisions that improve their quality of life as a whole.

How do Intelligent Transport Systems Work?

An Intelligent Transport System (ITS) refers to a combination of cutting-edge information and communication technologies that integrate operational controls and user-facing solutions, in a bid to facilitate the effective and efficient movement of people and goods across highway and inner-city road networks. An Intelligent Transport System integrates innovative road infrastructure, intelligent and connected vehicular system and information dissemination system to revolutionize mobility, promote safety, efficiency and convenience of use, through the creation of good traffic systems.  

ITS mechanisms work via hardware (firmware infrastructure), software solutions, user interfaces in conjunction with the connectivity of the Internet of Things (IoT) and the Internet of Vehicles (IoV).  Other technologies that are present within any ITS include, amongst others:

• Edge and Cloud Computing services

• Artificial Intelligence

• Application Programming Interfaces

• Mesh Networks

• Machine Learning

• Wired Networks

• Wireless Networks

•  Digital/Electronic Payment Mechanisms

• Firewall security systems

• Surveillance mechanisms including CCTV use 

The framework of these technologies bring together data in the following progression:

a. Collection

Data is collected through sensors such as cameras, RFID (Radio Frequency Identification), CCTV and GPS positioning. 

b. Transmission

Data collected is sent via wireless transmission for analysis using the city’s communication apparatus.

c. Analysis

Data transmitted is analyzed using deep learning algorithms to gain meaningful insights into the operations of city services 

d. Communication

Insights derived from the processed data are communicated to the city’s transportation management, using strong communication medium.

e. Application and Action

Insights derived influence decisions taken on how to control transport infrastructure, manage transport assets and streamline traffic operations. 

All technologies used in the creation, maintenance and update of an Intelligent Transport System contain one or more of the features listed below: 

• They must be digital

• They must be intelligent (be able to identify patterns after studying data generated from continuous human and vehicular interaction with transport infrastructure)

• They must be ubiquitous (provide easy access to public services through any connected device or mass communication medium, such as cellular phones, traffic advisory radio, mobile apps etc.)

• They must be able to generate, store, transmit or interpret large data amounts.

Categories of Intelligent Transport Systems

The full gamut of the workings of an Intelligent Transport System in a smart city is often seen in certain major applications:  

1. Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) Communication and Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communication Integration

Both V2V AND v2I systems employ short range communication frameworks that allow vehicles equipped and adapted for ITS to transmit data and share information with themselves and a variety of roadway firmware infrastructure supporting highway or express road networks on road incidents, conditions, travel information through an evaluation of traffic speed and trajectories. The purpose of this mechanism overall is in a bid to promote safety on the roads by reducing accidents through predictive analysis, forewarnings to road users and collision avoidance systems; preserve sanity by reducing traffic congestion through the deployment of smart traffic control signals (adaptive signal timing) and increase mobility convenience and energy efficiency through the delivery of real-time traffic information (including traffic lags, hazard forewarnings, traffic rerouting etc.) to road users. 

V2I and V2V Integration employ the use of apparatus such as firmware on roads, traffic tags, lane markings, sensors, tags, inductive loop sensors, video cameras and software, along with innovative communication and connectivity modes for communication and information routing. Technological apparatus is being developed for increasingly smart functions such as blind spot detection, pedestrian and vehicle detection and bicycle to vehicle communication in a bid to keep up with the futuristic inventions being churned out by the automobile industry. 

2. Advanced Traveler Information System (ATIS):

Intelligent Transport Systems in smart cities have been developed to provide real time travel and traffic information to drivers. Information is obtained through devices involved in current traffic flow, transmitted to transport management systems, processed and is disseminated to the public transportation system, individual users of the road transport network and third party service providers willing to resell such information. Each step leading to the release of traffic information is facilitated by distinct technology devices, platform and features public and private involvement. It is then communicated via the aid of radio/highway traffic advisory, news bulletin, cellular-phone messages, broadcasts, smart traffic signs, navigation systems etc. 

Effective traveler information systems provide real time, relevant and accurate details to road users about their precise locations; the distance between their location and their destinations; public transit routes and schedules; weather conditions that could influence traffic flow and travel time; current traffic and existing road conditions; route guidance; crash notifications; routes with incidents of possible delays in transit times due to factors like road repair work; alternate routes; closed road networks; routes with incidents of traffic congestion including areas seeing high traffic; routes with traffic signals that could cause time lags amongst other relevant information. Smart cities with highly ATIS have developed smart parking systems where drivers and smart vehicles are provided with information on closest vacant parking systems and can even reserve such spaces in advance. Another futuristic development credited to dynamic travel information is the rise of multi-mode, multi-operator travel. One of such cities witnessing such is Stockholm, Sweden. 

Advanced Traveler Information Systems in smart transport systems exist to foster traveler convenience by empowering them with adequate information available on multiple platforms (whether in or out of vehicles) to make informed travel decisions such as choice of travel modes, optimal route selection and route navigation. Such informed decisions help to foster convenient transportation and cut travel time, consequences with positive, far-reaching multiplier effects. A more convenient travel experience translates to a reduction in time wasted in traffic congestion which indirectly leads to a reduction of carbon emissions, improved air quality and a greener environment; a shortage of travel time translates to a reduction in stress that could be incurred from laborious travel, an improved quality of living, improved efficiency and productivity at work and contributes to the economic development of the city due to improved tourism experiences. 

3.    Advanced Public Transportation Systems (APTS):

APTS is a category of Intelligent Transport Systems that feature applications designed to bolster public transportation system, by using information derived from bus trajectory and routes and commuters’ transportation data to predict arrival time, detect bus stops automatically and detect the level of crowding in public transit buses. 

The unique thing about smart public transit system applications is that they foster a shared form of transport management using data sourced from public transit vehicles, public bus stations and commuters’ devices but demands a responsive transport system accountable to the public. APTS deploys the use of innovative navigation, information and communication technologies to improve the efficiency of bus transit systems, reduce operating costs and improve service quality.

APTS enables real time tracking and communication with transit vehicles for intelligent transport management. Through APTS technologies, commuters are granted enhanced visibility into the current location of transit vehicles, estimated arrival and departure times; guided route navigation to the nearest bus stations, available transit options, bus schedules and even offered smart payment of bus fares through cashless and contactless mechanisms. The result is lower transportation costs and increased reliability and safety on public transit systems by the public; essentially an evidence of satisfaction with public infrastructure. 

4. ITS-Powered Transportation Pricing Systems:

This category of Intelligent Transport System involves the use of widespread ICT, hardware and software as well as connectivity mechanisms for the estimation, pricing, payment and management of all financial transactions involving public transportation systems and use of road networks by individual vehicles. Such pricing systems include cashless and contactless payment of bus fares done through smart cards and tokens, electronic fines and penalties payments, electronic toll collection, fee-based express lanes, congestion pricing and variable parking fees. 

These pricing systems, apart from generating resources to fund investments in smart roadway infrastructure, also perform the unlikely task of reducing the impact of vehicular traffic congestion on the environment. It is believed that congestion pricing mechanisms and the increment of toll prices during traffic congestion can discourage individual vehicular movement and reduction of traffic flow, which in turn, reduces smog and carbon emissions. 

Other subsystems of an Intelligent Transport System include: 

• Advanced/Intelligent Transport Management System

• Advanced Commercial Vehicles Operations Management & Monitoring System

•  Emergency Planning and Management

Advantages of Intelligent Transport Systems 

• Improved safety of road users and pedestrians

• Improved vehicular safety through preventive incident management

• Delivery of more accurate and relevant travel information

• Efficient decision making based on actual, collated and automatically analyzed data 

• Better management of infrastructural capacity

• Improved climate neutrality and reduction of pollution

• Better urban planning opportunities

• Improved driver mobility and travel convenience

• Reduction of travel time

• Improved productivity and organizational efficiency

• Boost in economic activity 

• Improved quality of life for residents

Challenges of Intelligent Transportation Systems

• Expensive to create, build and run

• Must be constantly maintained and updated to properly function

• Large scale of operations needed to show signs of effectiveness

• Efficient only when other systems are smart as well; efficiency is closely related to system interdependency

• Overreliance on technology and technological services

• Data privacy and security issues 

• If residents are opposed to it, it will be defunct as it is highly participatory and requires citizen collaboration to be adapted.

• Rapid urbanization and a focus on cities with the technology alone which would widen the inequality gap in low-income, developing countries  

• If not planned with a perspective towards inclusion for all persons, it might create new barriers for persons with disabilities and accessibility problems 

• Huge waste of electronic waste which may backfire on and reverse all strides taken towards climate preservation. 

It must be noted here that the existing intelligent transport systems are not perfect yet and innovations occur daily to fine-tune its application and adoption for all kinds of societies. So far, progress is still being made on the implementation of ITS. The universal truth is that the world, as we have always known it, is changing. Several countries have adopted ITS in smart cities around the world and none of the criticisms against ITS have proved insurmountable yet.   

Rainwater Harvesting and Reuse

Rainwater harvesting or as it is known by its other names; rainwater collection or catchment is simply the collection of runoff from structures built for the purpose or taking advantage of surfaces impenetrable by rainwater and channeling or putting same into storage containers or vessels for reuse purposes.

The most common or traditional method by which this is done is by collecting water on the roof of the building which collect in gutters and flow through/into downspouts or pipes; in order to make the collection easy and tidy. The alternative is to collect the water off serrated roofs with multiple containers and manually empty them into storage cisterns or tanks. The former method is easy, can be arranged for when the house is being roofed and does not demand extra manpower, the latter is more demanding and messy.

While rainwater is more commonly harvested or collected on farms and in developing countries, there seems to be a reemergence of rainwater collection to augment for water supply from municipal, regional or more conventional sources especially as the effects of global warming and climate change begin to affect underground water tables and the pollution of fresh water sources by saltwater floods.

It is also being exploited again because of its natural benefits to plants; lawns and gardens and of course to humans as well; absence of chlorine, natural pH and hydrogen levels not to mention the fact that it is free. How to collect this water and its importance is discussed in this eye-opening article.

Importance of Rainwater Harvesting

While the importance of rainwater harvesting has been classified into niches by most writers, here we will have a general rundown to ensure that general idea is gained without losing the quality of the message.

• Bill Reduction: having money does not mean it has to be spent. Thus, by harvesting rainwater, it contributes to reducing the bills for the month especially in the rainy seasons and rainy climes. Due to the decline in underground water resources and the resultant increase in water bills, properly and harvesting rainwater reduces the dependence on billed water supply and directly reduces the amount of money paid on water bills.

Furthermore, by collecting rainwater, it reduces the strain on electric power used in pumping and treating water where this is provided personally. It therefore directly reduces the cost of bills paid on electricity.

In certain places such as Atlanta where Green House certifications such as LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) are available for houses that engage and use greenhouse initiatives, rainwater harvesting has the effect of easing the process and enabling easy access to this certification and ensuring that the landlord is able to draw more rent due to their increased rating as a result of the certification – irrespective of whether it’s a commercial or a residential building.

All these ensure that a building that harvest rainwater in the long run either saves money or makes money from the effort and in light of the new economic realities, little cents and dollars being cut from anywhere is a great effort in the grand scheme of things.

• Water Conservation: this is one very obvious advantage of rainwater harvesting. By harvesting rainwater, the strain that is put on public water supply is reduced and ensures it lasts longer. This is even more where the rainwater is piped into the building’s water supply. It ensures that the water (rainwater) is readily available and reduces the need to depend on the public water supply until it becomes very necessary.

• Reduction of erosions in dry areas: generally, in areas where the populace is averse to the rainwater harvesting, it is likely you’d realize that the environment in those areas are more eroded due to the excess water running around and beyond the control of lawn and drainages and sewage systems. Before these waters return to the traditional methods of water control, it usually must have already had its negative effect, flood inclusive.

On the other hand, by raising the collection or harvest of rainwater, the direct effect is the reduction of the quantity of storm water runoff which directly helps in reducing the amount of water available which could contribute to erosion and all its resultant effects. This is on an individual level.    

At regional or municipal level, an area that has high rainfall and suffers erosion as a result can come up with a plan that enables it to collect most of the rain that falls through runoff systems installed for the purpose to limit the amount of rainfall that touches the ground thereby augmenting municipal or regional water sources while at the same time ensuring that the problem of erosion is curbed.

• Cleanliness: rainwater is purer when compared to treated water sources. This is not unconnected with the presence of chlorine and fluoride in treated water. Furthermore, rainwater being natural have and maintains a balanced pH level with results in it being more acceptable and healthy to plants as well it being softer which makes it more receptive to soaps and detergents, making washing and cleaning easier.

• Maintenance: this is also an obvious advantage of rainwater harvesting in that it is easier for an individual to maintain his personal storage equipment; tanks, cisterns and pipes, with control of how often he wants them cleaned and with what than it is for the same individual to determine how well regional and municipal water authorities maintain their facilities. This puts control of the harvesters health firmly in his hands as against in an unknown person’s hands.

Disadvantages of Rainwater Harvesting

• Health risks: this is easily the biggest disadvantage of rainwater harvesting. Since the most easily used collection point for rainwater is the roof, it goes without saying that the exposure of the roof poses a health risk as animals could leave droppings which are washed into the collection gutters by the rain, collected into the storage cisterns and tanks and stored and reused. There is also the fact that depending on which material the roof is made off, even rust could be washed off the roof and into the storage with definitely poses health risks.

Furthermore, rainwater, except in rare instances, is collected in an untreated state and stored in the same manner. Bacteria that collected in the water when left untreated could pose a substantial health threat to the users of the water.

Here, the possibilities are endless. In a household, there are basically 3 ways in which rainwater could be reused effectively and they are;

1. Agricultural uses

2. Potable use for the whole house

3. Non-potable house use 

Agricultural or irrigation uses: this includes but is not limited to hand watering of lawns and gardens (flower and vegetable) with the rain water since we’ve established that rainwater is quite beneficial to plants because of its balanced pH and hydrogen levels.

Furthermore, where the expanse to be watered is large and can’t be conveniently watered by hand, the rainwater cistern or tank can be rigged into the sprinkler or irrigation system to ensure that what is being used on the plants is strictly rainwater for purpose of its benefit. It can also be used in washing/bathing the family pets without worry.

Potable use for the whole house: when properly filtered, there is nothing that says rainwater cannot be conveniently used in all corners and for all functions of the house. It could be used in cooking, bathing, brushing and all such other operations for which just any water won’t do. Where collected in commercial settings, it could also be used to replace regional or municipal provided water in industrial processes.

Non-potable house use: this includes using it to fill fountains and ponds. It can also be used in washing outdoor equipment and spaces like farm implements, cars, drive and walkways and garages.

How to Collect the Water

There are basically two systems by which rainwater is collected. The first the simple method only requires that there be a means to channel the water from a runoff (say a roof), through gutter and downspouts and into the receptacle. This method is recommended where the water will be used for strictly non-potable uses as water collected by this means is considered grey water and is not safe for potable uses.

Where the water collected in intended for more, then even the system by which it is collected has to be more. This is commonly known as the Complex system/method. While the runoff in this method may be similar to that in the simple method, this method is required to have a system that filters out debris and filth out of the water and a storage tank that keeps sunlight away from the water as sunlight encourages the growth of algae in rainwater.

By filtering properly and storing carefully, the water can be considered pure and can be used for all intended purposes including potable ones.

Much like fashion, rainwater harvesting went out of vogue and has made quite a good rebound. With the advance in technology and with climate change shifting what we know as the norm, rainwater harvesting may just be that missing piece to sustainable, cheap/free water supply we crave.

Tsunami Preparedness and Mitigation

A tsunami is a series of ocean waves caused by earthquakes, landslides, or volcanic eruptions. These waves can kill and injure people and destroy entire communities. Tsunamis strike as fast moving walls of water that flood, drain, and re flood the land for hours. Tsunamis can flood more than a mile inland. But we can take action to prepare. Prepare now to protect yourself and your loved ones.

Tsunami warning centers and coastal communities play critical roles in protecting the public from tsunamis. All low-lying coastal areas are vulnerable to tsunamis. For this reason a tsunami early warning system may not always be effective. Tsunamis are often accompanied by natural signs that can be sensed by an alert person. Recognizing any of these tsunami warning signs at the beach or coast could save your life. 

Effective early warning systems will save lives. To be effective, there must be synergy among all levels of the warning system, with international, national, and community actions harmonized to effect a seamless warning and response chain —an end-to-end warning system from detection to safe evacuation. Warnings are most effective when there is continuous public awareness and preparedness to support appropriate public action.

Many of the things you need to do to prepare for a tsunami are the same as you would do to prepare for other hazards that may affect your community. It is not hard, and it is not expensive.

Understand Tsunami Warnings

Understand the two types of tsunami warnings, official and natural, and how to respond to them. They are equally important, and you may not get both. Respond immediately to whichever you receive first.

Official Warnings

An official tsunami warning will be broadcasted through local radio and television, marine radio, wireless emergency alerts. It may also come through outdoor sirens, local officials, text message alerts, and telephone notifications. Evacuation is recommended. 

Move to a safe place on high ground or inland (away from the water). Follow instructions from local officials. In the case of a local tsunami, there may not be time to wait for an official tsunami warning.

Natural Warnings

A natural tsunami warning may the first, best, or only warning that a tsunami is on its way. Natural tsunami warnings include strong or long earthquakes, a loud roar (like a train or an airplane) from the ocean, and unusual ocean behavior.

The ocean could look like a fast-rising flood or a wall of water. Or, it could drain away suddenly, showing the ocean floor, reefs, and fish like a very low, low tide. Any of these warnings, even just one, means a tsunami could arrive within minutes.

Protect yourself from the earthquake, if necessary, and move quickly to a safe place on high ground or inland (away from the water). Do not wait for an official warning.

The elements of an effective warning system can be summarized as follows:

• Proper instruments that enable the early detection and assessment of threat of potentially harmful earthquakes and tsunamis. The data obtained by these instruments must be readily available to all nations continuously and in real-time.

• The National Warning Centre must be able to analyze and forecast the impact of tsunamis on coasts in advance of the waves’ arrival, and the local, regional, and/or national   Civil   Protection   or   Disaster   Management   Agencies   must   be   able   to immediately   disseminate   the   alerts   and   enable   evacuation   of   all   vulnerable communities. The communications methods must be reliable, robust, and redundant, and work closely with the mass media and telecommunications providers to accomplish this broadcast as well as integrate social media. Vulnerable populations must be informed in an understandable and culturally appropriate way.

• Awareness that educates and informs a wide populace on how to recognize a tsunami natural warning signs and what to do, from ordinary citizens to lifeline and critical infrastructure services. The public must know a tsunami’s natural warning signs and where to evacuate immediately because a local tsunami may hit within  minutes and before an official tsunami warning can be issued and received. Respect for and use of indigenous knowledge is important.

• Preparedness arrangements that practice procedures and actions necessary to save lives and reduce impact. Drills and exercises, and proactive outreach and awareness are essential for reducing tsunami impact. The inclusion of natural hazards science and disaster  preparedness  subjects  in  the  school  curriculum  will  prepare and  carry awareness to the next generations. Gender-related issues in preparedness and family responses in emergencies need to be accommodated.

• Response planning that identifies and creates the public safety procedures and products that enable fast action. This includes both land evacuations of people and marine evacuations in ports, harbours, and protection of airports and critical and lifeline facilities. It is necessary to create and widely disseminate tsunami evacuation maps that include instructions on when to go, where to go, and how to go. Evacuation zones, shelters, and evacuation routes need to be clearly identified, and widely known by all segments of the coastal and marine population.

• Tsunami-resistant engineering and building codes, and prudent land-use policies that are implemented as pre-disaster mitigation.  Tall, reinforced concrete buildings, or natural berms, can offer safe places to which people can vertically evacuate if there is no   time   to   reach   higher   ground.   Long-term   planning   to   avoid   placing   critical infrastructure  and  lifeline  support  facilities  in  inundation  zones  will  reduce  the  time needed for services to be restored and reduce economic impact.

• Stakeholder coordination to facilitate effective, seamless actions in warning and emergency response. Clear designation of the national or local authority from  which the public will receive emergency  information  is  essential  to  avoid  public  confusion, which would compromise both public trust and safety.

• High-level advocacy at community, national, and international levels that ensures a sustained commitment to prepare for what are infrequent, but high-fatality natural disasters such as tsunami.

Plan for Evacuation

Tsunami evacuation planners must consider the different responses for a local, regional and distant source event. A distant source tsunami allows for more than three hours for evacuation. A regional tsunami is particularly challenging, as only one to three hours exist to decide and conduct an evacuation. A local tsunami (less than one hour between tsunami trigger and wave arrival) will require immediate self-evacuation based on ground shaking or other natural warning signs observed by community members. Local tsunamis and earthquakes should be planned for together, as earthquake impact may make evacuation challenging. The time required to execute an evacuation should be analyzed and   built into the decision-making procedure. Tsunami evacuation plans, maps, and procedures should be developed with community and government input so that evacuation advice (or orders) to evacuate are clear and the evacuations themselves orderly. 

Tsunami evacuation maps are a critical product of the tsunami evacuation planning process. Evacuation maps, based on the expected inundation maps, must delineate zones that need to be evacuated when a dangerous tsunami is imminent. The evacuation zones are typically indicated using contrasting colours.  Multiple evacuation zones (and colours)  can  be used, depending on the hazard assessment for instance where there is significant difference between a local or distant tsunami, or an extreme tsunami threat). In high density locations, the maps should indicate the optimum evacuation routes to safe areas. As not all areas will have access to natural high ground, some locations may need to consider adopting a policy of vertical evacuation to a designated (and sign posted) strong building, or for sheltering in place. Ideally, the public should evacuate by foot when possible to avoid creating traffic congestion. Evacuation plans and maps should be vetted at community meetings and corresponding authorities, and an educational tsunami evacuation brochure developed for wide distribution. 

Evacuation planning is the process for identifying areas potentially at risk from tsunamis, and the actions required to ensure the safety of people while evacuating from those areas. It is fundamental that evacuation plans are integrated with the tsunami early warning system, as well as with other public and private sector emergency plans. Evacuation plan components should cover types of evacuation (e.g. voluntary, mandatory) and the management of the respective phases (e.g. decision, notification, process, and shelter, return). 

Special planning considerations must be given to the portion of affected communities that are incapable of or will have difficulty evacuating without assistance, such as hospitals. In addition, tsunami response plans, including shutdown of services and evacuation of personnel, should be in place for critical facilities and infrastructure. 

Evacuation procedures should include guidance to emergency services at the local level; thereby, ensuring evacuation zones are closed off and secured until the tsunami warning is cancelled and the threat of a tsunami no longer exists. Once areas have been evacuated, roadblocks, barricades, and/or a system of patrols should be set in place to keep the public from returning to evacuation zones and to keep people with malicious intent out. The decision to allow re-entry (e.g. all-clear) will be made by Emergency Management officials. 

Signage is an effective mechanism for public education on the risk posed by tsunamis and the appropriate evacuation response to a tsunami event. Stakeholders, including the public, should examine signage locations and types during the planning process.  Four basic categories of tsunami sign types are: evacuation zone, evacuation route, evacuation safe-location/assembly areas and information board.  Many different tsunami signs are available around the world, though three basic signs (hazard/evacuation zone, horizontal safe point, and vertical shelter) were agreed upon and adopted by the International Organization for Standardization. Signage must be in sync with local community education, preparedness, and mitigation programs. 

Exercising these plans and procedures helps to validate, increase and sustain awareness and preparedness. Tsunami exercises can range from orientation workshops and straightforward communications tests to full-scale alerting and evacuations of people from tsunami hazard zones. A perfectly executed warning will be useless if people, agencies and organizations do not know how to respond to the warning. Exercise also support the planning process through review and assessment.

Plan to evacuate on foot if you can; roads may be impassable due to damage, closures, or traffic jams. 

It is also important to know what to do during and after a tsunami. This includes staying informed and staying safe. After a tsunami, local officials will assess the damage and decide when it is safe to return. Even though the danger of the tsunami has passed, other dangers may remain (debris, fires, unstable structures, etc.). If there is a lot of damage, it may be days before it is safe to return to affected areas.

Community preparedness is vitally important because it enables a rapid appropriate response to both official warnings and the natural signs of a possible tsunami. This is critical for saving lives for all tsunami events, and it is even more essential for locally generated tsunamis. Without tsunami community preparedness, the chances of people to escape and survive a locally generated tsunami are minimal. Two important components of community preparedness are science-based tsunami inundation maps and participatory-developed tsunami evacuation plans and maps. Only when you are well aware of the tsunami hazard, your community can be prepared against this natural threat. This guide describes how to develop tsunami inundation and evacuation maps and how to increase the community tsunami readiness and preparedness, including through drills and exercises.

Urban Runoff Quality Control

Urban runoff is the flow of stormwater, water from landscape irrigation and other human activities such as car washing which flow on the surface of impervious surfaces such as parking lots, roads and sidewalks created for the purpose by urbanization and development.

It is called URBAN because it is separate and distinct from similar activities which may be carried out in rural or farm areas where such waters are ordinary absorbed and reinfiltrated into groundwater and the water table by natural means. It is also distinct because unlike in rural areas, the flow in urban areas takes place on impervious surfaces such as concrete and asphalted surfaces which are constructed as a result of development and urbanization.

Urban runoff has become something of a hot topic in recent years because of its effect on natural water bodies close to urban areas which are affected by it as a result of the contaminants contained in the runoff such as chemicals, dirt and fertilizers from landscaped areas; lawns and gardens. These pollutants have proven dangerous to plant aquatic plant and animals life and by extension to human lives where these plants and/or animals and water are in turn depended on my humans for food and nourishment.

Incidents That Make Urban Runoff Quality Control Necessary

1. Water pollution: As we have already noted, major metropolitan cities have much of their land surface covered by structures and asphalt, which try not to permit downpour and snow melt to douse into the ground. All things considered, most of such urban areas depend on storm channels to convey a lot of overflow from rooftops and cleared regions to close by streams. The stormwater runoff carries poisons like oil, soil, synthetic compounds and manures straight to streams and waterways, where they truly hurt water quality.

We tend to mistake water pollution with pollution but plastic and visible materials alone. It is more than that.

Ephemeral streams—also known as watercourses that historically held little or no water during dry weather—are one of the most pronounced effects of urban runoff. At the point when a region around such a stream is urbanized, the resultant spillover makes an unnatural all year streamflow that harms the vegetation, untamed life and stream bed of the stream.

Urban runoff hurls down the stream channel, destroying natural features like meanders and sandbars and causing severe erosion—increasing sediment loads at the mouth while severely carving the stream bed upstream—despite containing little or no sediment in comparison to the historical ratio of sediment to water. For instance, at the mouth of a waterway on numerous beaches in Southern California, urban runoff can carry waste, pollutants, excessive silt, and other wastes and pose moderate to severe health risks.

This distortion of the water quality is further harmful to humans who depend on the aquatic life for food which would have become polluted.

2. Reduction in the water table: Urban areas are notorious for their abhorrence of usage of natural water sources such as rainwater and open wells. The burden of water supply to satisfy urban demand then rests on underground water which is drilled and supplied for domestic and industrial uses. When it rains and impervious surfaces prevent the water from being reabsorbed by the earth, underground water is not recharged thus water shortage becomes inevitable.

3. Urban flooding/erosion: Flooding occurs in situations of high precipitation such as rainfall or snowmelt, the available channels in the urban areas like stormwater drains and channels are usually overwhelmed in the moments immediately following them which could lead to water getting into properties like basements and low laying houses and where not effectively dealt with can lead to loss of lives and properties.

Flooding on the other hand occurs where runoff water manages to go beneath impervious surfaces and begin to chip, gradually, at the underlying soil. Initially, this is unobserved as the damage is unnoticed but as time goes on and water continues to seep beneath it, it could even lead to the impervious surface itself being destroyed. This is a direct consequence of uncontrolled stormwater and artificial runoff.

Purpose for Urban Runoff Quality Control

The aim of Urban Runoff Quality Control is to safeguard surface and groundwater resources and to improve on the mistakes that have already been made over the years by using engineering that is properly planned and implemented in such a way as to limit greater irresponsible runoff disposal but rather one that understands the shortfalls of traditional engineering and seeks to correct it such as WSUD (Water Sensitive Urban Design).

Simply put, the proper execution of designs, programmes and developmental engineering is to the end that anomalies which occurred as a result of the loopholes inherent in traditional engineering ideas are identified and effectively dealt with. For instance, traditional engineering depended on impervious surfaces in its design of urban areas, but it has been shown that impervious surfaces have disadvantages such as the depletion of underground water.

The effective application of modern design is to see how traditional engineering techniques are married with the old to see that the underground water is recharged with quality, pollution free water.

How to Mitigate the Effects of Urban Runoff and Ensure Better Quality Runoff

• The first stages in many techniques of improving the quality of urban runoff is the effective reduction of the flow of stormwater as well as going further to reduce the amount of pollutants being discharged into stormwater drains and channels. The techniques used to attain these goals are known as Best Management Practices for Water Pollution (BMPs). These techniques are usually water quantity or water quality control oriented and in some circumstances is a combination of both focuses.

• In the area of pollution control, techniques which are known as Green Infrastructure techniques which focus on sieving through pollutants according to their sizes like the Australian Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD), the UK’s Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SuDS) are the central focuses. These techniques seek to focus on the implementation of natural pollution control like the installation of green roofs and improving on the handling of chemical wastes like fertilizers, pesticides, and industrial wastes like oil and fuel.

Further techniques in the area of pollutant control are use and installation of techniques and infrastructure such as infiltration basins, bioretention suaves and systems and construction of wetlands.

• It could also be as far reaching as taking into account naturally occurring circumstances such as the temperature of the urban area, levels of precipitation and geographic location. It could also take into account airborne pollutant levels as all these different kinds of pollution could play their part in the increase of urban runoff and its quality.

Among taking cognizance of natural occurring activities and applying the gotten knowledge in dealing with runoff, stormwater harvesting is a credible tool. Much like harvesting rainwater reduces the volume of stormwater to be collected, harvesting grey stormwater directly from sources such as gullies and creeks which can then be reused for non-potable activities like irrigation of farms and gardens and flushing of toilet.

• Also, the human factor should not be overlooked as attention should be paid to human activities such as the rate of urbanization, choice of building materials and the trend in the use of land since as we have already noted, dependence on impervious materials only increase the runoff quantity of the immediate urban area.

Further along the line of human contribution to improving urban runoff with simple activities like road sweeps go a long way in reducing the amount of pollutant that is contained in the runoff as the vacuums used will be able to absorb the materials such as suspended solids which ordinarily are likely to end up storm channels.

• The place of education is also not to be overestimated as this is also a very effective tool in combating poor quality runoff from residential areas. In the use of education as a tool in controlling the quality of urban runoff, the focus should be on programs that educate people on the effects the harmless-looking runoffs from their houses have on the environment and what they can do by way of contribution to augment the corporate efforts being made by governments.

Incentives should also be put in place to encourage corporations to engage in discourses around urban runoffs and to encourage them to implement best practices in the regard. That way, efforts put into improving urban runoff by corporations does not feel forced and there is genuine interest in maintaining whatever good measures they must have put in place to achieve the said goals.

Urban runoff is inevitable. So long as precipitation occurs and rain continues to fall, stormwater becomes inevitable because rain and snowmelt all become stormwater which contribute to the runoff in urban places. What becomes an issue and makes it a viable environmental conundrum is the effect and quality of the runoff and the effect it has on the immediate environment, lands and surrounding water bodies. Effectively dealing with and improving the quality and reducing the volume of the runoff created is very crucial to any urban setting as it can be the difference between recurring illnesses and natural disasters such as flooding.

Architectural Design for Cultural Sensitivity

Culture is a complex thing; it is deep-rooted, most of the time unseen, and relates to our histories and beliefs. The concept or idea that culture shapes architecture is becoming oblivious, and little or no consideration is given to this idea. To fully understand this concept, one must grasp what culture is. As elementary as it may seem, it is very vital in architecture.

Simply put, culture is a way of life defined by norms and values. It is the ideas, customs, and social behaviour of a particular people or society. Hence, whatever behaviour, idea or custom a group of people codifies as their guiding principle influences everything that relates to them, namely dressing, ceremony, architecture, etc.

Architecture is one of the ways culture is manifested and expressed, and as such, architecture and culture are interrelated. Architecture is an art that fuses inventiveness and functionality. Architects not only create spaces that serve functional and practical purposes, but they also stir up feelings and emotions in the inhabitants of the space.

According to Gary T. Moore in his book Architecture and Human Behaviour, "Architecture is the art that combines expression, technology, and the satisfaction of human needs. Its purpose is to make places where people feel more human, more alive, and more satisfied. With respect to Vitruvius words, Architecture is the art which combines Utilitas, Firmitas and Venustas or Human behaviour, Technology and Beauty."

Architecture and Cultural Sensitivity

It is crucial to note that cultural sensitivity is a principal concept in architecture and design. People love and appreciate the architectural design that speaks to or expresses their beliefs. Architecture all over the world is part of our everyday lives. From the smallest of huts to the grandest of art galleries, architecture is more about the users. Architecture must respond to the users in the context within which they exist. The context here is in two senses: the physical and cultural attributes of a place. The physical context deals with the properties that are specific to that region in terms of climate, environment, geography, and community, while the cultural context deals with the specifics of the people, values, customs, and way of life in that place.

It is of utmost importance that architects recognise the diversity of people who will live or work in a building, whether it be residential, commercial, or public. The importance of understanding and taking into consideration the cultural diversity of the people while constructing is that it promotes social cohesion and harmony within and among communities. By incorporating cultural sensitivity into architectural design, architects can create spaces that respect and celebrate different cultures, which will promote and provide meaningful and long-lasting impacts on communities.

The importance of this architectural detailing and demarcation is seen in the culture of telling stories through stories that are normally written on this part. Also, the temples are of great heights that they can be seen from a far distance; it is to remind the people living in that locality of their gods. If the architectural design of the temple didn't encapsulate all these details or the architect was oblivious to these facts, then, the temple built wouldn't serve the purpose of the people as a place of worship or a learning space but also would have eroded the culture of the people.

Another instance is the new headquarters of the African Union which is located in Ethiopia. This building was designed by a Chinese architecture company. The architectural design of the complex combines African culture, symbolism, and the practical requirements of the organization seamlessly. The circular motif included in the architectural design is a common architectural element in Africa. In the entrance of the hall is a vast mural which displays African culture, history and its role in Pan-Africanism.

Characteristics of Culture in Architecture

It is imperative to look at the characteristics of culture in architecture. It is a known fact that the environment that people live in affects them. It being that human beings cannot adjust in the natural environment gave rise to the need to build and organize artificial environments where they live. Over the years architectural spaces have changed a plethora of times through history. 

Culture is both sustainable and dynamic, and these two aspects of culture conform to time. Architecture is not left out from the changes that come with time; this is so because the nature of humans and the culture of his society has evolved or changed from one generation to another. The main characteristics of culture in architecture are: 

• Shape, Forms, Styles and shape of building.

• Design principles with context.

• Material and technology for construction

 Shapes, Forms, Styles and Shapes of Building

The characteristics of shape, form, styles and shapes of buildings defined by architecture are different and peculiar in each period or generation. What influences the architectural design of a generation is the culture of that period or that generation. The cultural values of a society influence shapes, forms, styles and spaces. In a religious context, every religion has different forms, shapes and styles. For instance, in the Hindu religion, the architectural style of the temple is like a pagoda, sattala etc. While in the Buddhist religion, the architectural styles are stupas, chaityas and vihara. 

The architectural style of masjid, gothic is formally employed by the Muslims. The architectural style of the Christian religion is church architecture. The traditional Japanese design reflects the values of Japanese culture like, simplicity, harmony and natural elements.

Design Principles with Context

Different cultures have distinctive design guidelines or design principles that they follow when designing a building. The “Vastu Shastra”, which is the rules and regulations for space as dictated by the Hindu religion, is been followed religiously by the Hindu people. Similarly, the Chinese have the “Feng Shui” and “chi” i.e. Magnetic field and Sunlight. All the rules and regulations contained therein are drafted by following the cultural practices of the believers of that religion. In ancient times some cultures that believed in life after death designed their architectural form considering life after death as practised by Egyptians.

Material and Technology for Construction

The third characteristic of culture in architecture is technology and material. The culture of a community acts as a standard for perceiving, judging and evaluating technology. Different cultures employ different technology and materials in construction. The material used for construction is greatly influenced by its availability and the climate of a region. For example, in warm climates, buildings are often made of materials that provide shade and insulation, like bamboo, mud and straw. 

While in cold climates, materials like timber, stone and brick are used for construction. In ancient Egypt, the material used for construction was only big stones, while in ancient Rome, cement and concrete were used for construction. In the Vedic age, Hindus used bamboo, timber, stone and mud for construction. Most of the materials and technologies used in ancient times are still being employed today by architects. Hence, the cultural practices of a people influence the material and technology used for architectural design. 

Functionality and Diversity of Users

Another aspect of architecture that has been influenced by culture that is worthy of discussing is the function of a building and consideration of the diversity of users. What a building is used for often reflects the values and beliefs of a society. Take for example, in Western cultures, individuals see their living space as a private, individual space, while in Eastern cultures living space is seen as a shared space that the entire family uses. 

How a building is used is also determined or influenced by culture. Some buildings are used for specific purposes, such as religious worship or political assemblies. In other cultures, buildings are used for a variety of purposes, such as living, working and leisure. In Western cultures, buildings are designed strictly for a particular purpose, such as homes, offices and schools, while in Eastern culture, buildings are designed to be flexible in purpose and use, which is to say that a building can have multiple purposes. 

In talking about architectural design for cultural sensitivity it is vital to consider the diversity of the users. An architect must analyze and understand the social dynamics of the users to create an environment that fosters inclusivity and social connections. An inclusive design is a design that embraces diversity, accommodates different needs and breaks down barriers.

For instance, a building that has wheelchair accessibility, such a building makes it possible for people on wheelchairs to gain access to the building and use facilities in the building. An inclusive design considers other factors that will promote a sense of oneness and an environment that is welcoming among the users. Factors like the width and height of doorways, the height of counters and the placement of furniture. 

When all these principles relating to culture are achieved, it helps to create and maintain identity in today's world of globalization. Also, an architectural design that infuses culture into its design makes sure a user is an important member of the society he/she belongs to. So, there is no gainsaying the need for architecture that is cultural sensitivity. It is very saddening that the advent of modernism and globalization has eroded these architectural principles as buildings do not have unique styles, and they lack identity.  

The question now is, how can this be corrected? Community engagement should be paramount in the mind of the architecture and not make a design that lacks cultural identity with the persons living in that community. Community engagement means that before architects draw up a design they must listen to the needs and preferences of the people and duly incorporate them into their design. This process does not only promote harmony, trust and mutual respect, it also allows the architect and the community to pattern and work together for the same vision. They can achieve this by having public meetings, surveys, stakeholder interviews etc. All points suggested by the community must be taken it consideration and integrated into the design while balancing practicality and creativity.

It is important to note that the concept of architecture and culture has evolved in response to the changing environment. The rise of globalism and technological innovation has led to a greater exchange of ideas and cultural influences which has bought about a diverse and eclectic architectural landscape. For example, elements from other cultures are being incorporated into new buildings, such as the use of traditional Japanese design elements in contemporary buildings buttress the point of cultural diversity and a desire to bring a sense of history and tradition to modern buildings. The rise of technology has influenced architecture, and it has allowed for new forms and styles that reflect the changing values and beliefs of modern culture.

Regardless of the above-stated point of view, buildings or structures must bear identity with the culture of the people it is being built for no matter how small the identity. The importance of this cannot be overstretched because through architecture it is possible to gauge many things about a culture, things like lifestyle, artistic sensibilities and social structures. So prioritizing the incorporation of cultural sensitivity in architectural design in every project should be the utmost goal. By so doing, buildings and spaces created by an architect will promote inclusivity, social connections and mutual trust and respect.

VEHICLE-TO-INFRASTRUCTURE COMMUNICATION

With the automobile industry becoming one of the most advanced industries in the world, roadways are becoming theatres for the showcase of technology innovation. The advent of inventions that were laughingly regarded as scientific fiction some decades back or at least a long way ahead before coming to production, not to talk of popular use has shown the great strides that have been taken by science in the past century. Electric cars, electronic cars, solar-powered vehicles, battery-powered vehicles, hydro-powered vehicles as well as driverless (self-driving, automatic) do not seem so outlandish or out-of-place on our roads anymore. Many are steadily gaining popular acceptance and use in wealthier, more developed climes as cleaner and more climate-efficient alternatives to carbon-emitting, gasoline and diesel-powered vehicles. Equally as beneficial is the fact that the new levels of vehicular systems automation is the corresponding decrease of traffic fatalities and elevated road safety, an effect with long-ranging and far-reaching impact. State-of-the art vehicles require state-of-the-art infrastructure to function optimally. Needless to say, current transport systems around the globe must be quickly adapted and outfitted to support automobile engineering development, lest they be rendered obsolete. 

An important part of Intelligent Transport System in a smart city is the communication networks and technologies that it leverages to collect data, transmit data and disseminate relevant traffic, road and travel information through infrastructure, software and hardware. Technology is therefore being utilized to equip vehicles for communication within themselves and other devices and highway infrastructure. This is achieved through Vehicle-to-Infrastructure Communication and Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communication integration. 

Vehicle-To-Infrastructure (V2I) Communication

V2I Communication is the wireless, bi-directional exchange of data and information between vehicles and road infrastructure components to transmit, store, and deliver accurate data for processing and analysis into real time traffic information disseminated to road users. It is a technology that has seen near-ubiquitous use in Intelligent Transport Systems, as it has been adapted in Intelligent Transport subsystems traffic management, advanced public transit management, transport pricing mechanisms, emergency response management, transport monitoring and supervision systems.

In simpler terms, V2I Communication refers to collaborative and co-opting communication between vehicles and infrastructure to help ensure safe, and secure transportation and vehicular mobility with minimal congestion and shorter travel time. 

How Does V2I Work?

V2I architecture allows equipped vehicles with the necessary apparatus and technology mechanism to allow collection of data on their speed and location and transmission of said data to a central server for fusion, storage, analysis and processing. Held data is then aggregated for ITS applications, such as the determination of travel time from one location to another or predictive analysis. For instance, the server aggregates, from the data collected from vehicles plying a particular highway, all speeds as calculated based on the occupancy, number of vehicles within a specific timeframe, and average length of each car. This enables quick responses to queries for the estimated amount of time it takes for an average car to traverse that road. 

How is this data collected? The collection and retrieval of real time traffic data is basically the function of transportation agencies. This is mainly due to how resource-intensive such collection would be, due to the number of roadway infrastructure apparatus covering all road networks in the city/region. All transport and traffic management systems depend on the accuracy of the data to make predictive analysis and issue real time traffic advisory through various media. 

Common methodologies of data collection involved in V2I include the below listed:

• The use of sensors to detect motion, changes in speed, temperature etc.

• Intelligent beacon sensing techniques

• Placement of pavement microphones to detect sounds such as vehicular honks and beeps; used to determine levels of traffic congestion

• Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) 

• Lane markings 

• Inductive loops; which can be placed in either a single or multiple lanes. They detect vehicles as they cross through the loop’s magnetic field, either recording results in a simple format (by maintaining a tally count of vehicles passing within a time unit) or in a sophisticated (by measuring speed, length and class of vehicles, or by measuring the distance between one vehicle and another). They can work well with slow/stopping vehicles as well as high-speed ones.

• Radar Detection

• DSRC (Dedicated Short Range Communication ; a wireless communication channel specifically designed for automotive uses)

• Bluetooth technology; used to calculate travel time and provide data for origin and destination time

• Wi-Fi

• Mobile-/cellular-phone networks

• Wireless networks 

• GPS positioning technology

• Satellite-navigation systems

• Roadside video camera recognition; including Automatic License Plate Recognition using Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

• Surveillance systems, including Closed Circuit Television (CCTV)  technology

• Joint, multi-agent information fusion (e.g. acoustic+image+sensor; GPS+Satnav+Accelerometer+microphone)

• Connected vehicles and the Internet of Vehicles (IoV)

•  Internet of Things (IoT) 

The vehicle-generated traffic data gathered and collected through the above methodologies by roadway infrastructure, which have been equipped for providing this exchange and mounted at targeted points with high rate of vehicular traffic (e.g. intersections, interchanges, petrol stations etc.), is sent to a central server, which stores the data. Algorithms (deep learning, machine learning, gradients are incorporated to use the data exchanged to perform calculations that recognize high risk situations in advance. Information (advisories) is then disseminated to the vehicle and driver that inform of the driver of existing safety, mobility or environment related conditions. Information derived is often integrated with Vehicle-To-Vehicle Communication for real time advisory. 

ITS applications empowered by V2I communication can be categorized based on the purpose of information provided or on the medium the information is directed to. 

Safety applications seek to reduce greatly traffic accidents through prediction and notification of drivers of the information derived from communications between vehicles and infrastructure on the road network being plied. This could be in form of hazard warnings in form of crash, obstacle or congestion notifications; speed management through Intelligent Speed Adaptation which uses digital speed limit maps and data about the vehicle’s position to alert the driver if the vehicle is or about to exceed such speed limits or communicate with the vehicle automatically slow the vehicle down; intersection safety; merging assistance; priority assignment for emergency response vehicles or even railway crossing notifications. 

Efficiency applications are directed at promoting better utilization of road networks and intersections, in a way to avoid collision or congestion. Often efficiency applications also act as safety measures as well, and they can operate on a local scale at intersections or on intra city roads, or on a wider scale such as expressways or a busy downtown road.  Examples of traffic efficiency information include traffic jam notification; dynamic traffic signaling system such as traffic light control; dynamic traffic control; recognition of potential traffic congestion areas and situations and connected navigation systems. 

Pricing and Payment applications use number plate recognition systems through video cameras and surveillance systems to effect parking control; congestion charges and electronic toll payment. 

Signal Phase and Timing (SPaT) applications occur when V2I Communication is leveraged to align vehicular driving speed with the patterns of a dynamic traffic light system, in a bid to minimize environmental impact by optimizing vehicular fuel economy and regulating speed. 

Infrastructure-specific applications provide an interface with a focus towards the provision of information services to road infrastructure and apparatus. Alerts are relayed by dynamic message systems as in travel time systems; variable speed limit signs and maps; road signage systems and traffic signal controls.   

Vehicle-specific applications interface with vehicle apparatus to channel information using driver-targeted, in-vehicle messaging (e.g. audio route guidance and warning systems in vehicles or navigation information on mobile apps etc.); visible messaging at electronic traffic billboards directed to oncoming vehicles or automated vehicle measures such as restraint systems, braking mechanisms or anti-collision mechanisms.

Limitations of Vehicle-To-Infrastructure Communication

One of the foremost limitations of the V2I Communication adaptation is in its need for public acceptance for effectiveness. 

V2I is a collaborative communication mechanism that requires large scale operations to run and be truly effective. V2I Communication is powered by large tranches of data collected to provide accurate prediction analysis. Apart from needing enough road networks, it must achieve unanimous approval, or at least be hugely popular acceptance for it to be utilized in the transport system as a high number of residents’ individual vehicles and access to vehicle data. An individual having a V2I-equipped vehicle cannot be of much benefit to the Intelligent Transport System, even if the road networks have the necessary communicative apparatus, if other vehicle users do not choose to adopt the system as well, based on whatever reasons they might have. 

Data privacy concerns are a major obstacle to public adoption of V2I communication adoption. Many persons believe that V2I includes some form of tracking and identification technology; which could lead to a compromise of individual vehicle user safety if data from the vehicles is intercepted and hacked to reveal vehicle identity and owner identification information. However, it must be noted that this is only a superstitious myth; as the architecture is designed to foster anonymous data exchange and prevent identification of individual vehicles, as data is sent via encrypted network tunnels indecipherable to the V2I system. Even while detecting signal and speed violations, the identity of violators are still protected. Detection is for safety purposes to alert the violator and oncoming vehicles.

Another limitation of V2I communication is inherent in its architecture and structure. For one, all information received from vehicles through roadway infrastructure is routed to a single, central server. As a result, there is one single point of failure. If the central server is damaged or collapses for any reason, or the link between the server and infrastructure is tampered with or interrupted, the entire process is defeated. Additionally, storage capacity of the central server affects the amount of data that can be stored and data memory. Old data is often totally overwritten to make way for new tranches of gathered data and when lost, cannot be retrieved.

Also, V2I systems are exposed to a high risk of damage, whether such attacks are directed towards in-vehicle components or outer infrastructure. Due to the use of wireless communication, the dynamic topology of network infrastructure and the big size of the network, criminals can manipulate, eavesdrop on or forge the information exchanged in a bid to affect the performance and operation of the network. Magnets, electric shocks and malicious software as in viruses, hacking or jamming can disrupt communication and mess up collaboration. To ensure effectiveness and usability, V2I roadway infrastructure must be built to be durable and not constitute a threat of being hit by the vehicles they are supposed to communicate with. If not embedded in the road (to avoid being broken apart by motorists), then they must be built on the side of the road and shielded, which attracts safety concerns of its own. The presence of firmware as roadway infrastructure for V2I communication purposes means a veritable invitation for tampering, theft and destruction by criminal elements, particularly if such developments are not particularly accepted by the public. If technicians do not have a specific level of knowledge and expertise on V2I systems, they might not be able to recognize signs of tampering. V2I systems thus require a high level of security and extensive knowledge, training and expertise to operate, inspect and maintain them. 

Furthermore, V2I road infrastructure can be painstaking and expensive to purchase, install, operate, maintain and update. Significant capital investments are needed for the adoption of V2I. Institutions and government administrations would rather channel resources into building new roads as opposed to equipping existing ones with smart technology for optimal functioning.  

However massive and insurmountable these challenges might seem, technological and policy innovations can be made to resolve all obstacles (infrastructural, perception-based and architectural) to adoption of V2I Communication as a foremost intelligent transport system component. 

It must be noted as well that there is no smart system that ensures 100% safety on roads at all times. Nevertheless, where there is a system that seeks to ensure traffic safety and keep fatalities to the lowest levels possible by facilitating optimization of what roads are already present, then the rational decision should be to adopt such a system for increased societal development. 

Water Sensitive Urban Design

Water sensitive urban design (WSUD) is an engineering and land planning approach which marries factors of the urban water cycle including all of the following; groundwater, stormwater, water supply and wastewater management into general urban design with the intention of minimizing environmental degradation while simultaneously improving beauty and the recreational appeal of the same environment.

It is necessary to know that the term Water Sensitive Urban Design is peculiar to Australia and the middle east but refers to the same thing as Low Impact Development (LID) as used in the United States and Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) as used in the United Kingdom.

One may wonder, validly, what makes WSUD different from traditional development patterns or methods in urban areas and city centers. The answer is quite simple; traditional or standard industrial and urban development focused on changing surfaces from semi-permeable vegetative surfaces to interwoven or interconnected surfaces that  are impervious which resulted in high quantities of stormwater runoffs.

This development model considered stormwater runoffs as a nuisance and a liability which posed a threat to human life and property and it was treated like the enemy. How?  Focus was put on developing stormwater management systems which immediately channels stormwater as soon as they become available into streams and rivers without consideration going into preserving the ecosystem. This approach led to what was termed the Urban Stream Syndrome.

Water Sensitive Urban Design, on the other hand, is a plan that integrates stormwater and other such natural occurring water sources into planning rather than resist or try to annihilate. It allows or provides a system wherein the stormwater is factored into the planning with green areas provided for to absorb stormwater with whatever is left channeled into filtration systems and reused.

WSUD has proven to be most accepted in areas that suffer drought either because of their unique environments or because of climate change. With WSUD, stormwater is no longer considered as a nuisance with destructive tendencies, it is now regarded as an asset that can improve the life of both the people and the state of the environment.

Cornerstone Principles of Water Sensitive Urban Design

•  Protecting and enhancing sanity and biodiversity of wetlands, creeks and rivers around and within urban settlements.

•  Restoring water balance in urban areas by greater reuse of greywater, recycled water and stormwater.

•  Efficient use of water resources by reuse and focus on system efficiency.

• Protection and improvement of quality of water draining from urban settlements into wetlands, creeks and rivers.

•  Integrating stormwater reuse and treatment into the landscape so that it offers multiple beneficial uses such as wildlife habitat, water quality treatment, open public space and recreation.

•  Integrating stormwater into the landscape to improve and achieve urban design and visual, cultural, social and ecological ethos.

•  Cost effective and easy implementation of Water Sensitive Design in order to allow widespread implementation.

Applying these principles have provided a cost-effective means of limiting the impact of development on waterways around urban areas, make provision for places that are greener and cooler and engender healthier communities that are connected and protective of their waterways.

Such communities are central to the idea and execution of WSUD as one factor that has mitigated the use and spread of this system are a lack of ability or willingness, organization cultures that are unsupportive and restrictive policies which easily limit the implementation of WSUD to realize the desired goals.

Common Examples of WSUD Processes

The WSUD practices discussed here are common in Australia.

Bioretention Swales and Systems: Bioretention swales are vegetated, shallow, landscaped depressions which have sloped sides. Their purpose is to capture stormwater from runoffs, infiltrate and treat them as it moves from surface areas. Swales are inexpensive to build but require more space in order to function optimally since the water channeled has to infiltrate the soil, be conveyed and filtered.

Bioretention systems are broader systems that involve bioretention swales and may include bioretention basins. It involves water treatment by vegetations set up for that purpose. This step is done prior to the filtration of the sediments contained in the water by medium set up for the purpose. The vegetation provides for natural absorption of nutrients contained in the stromwater such as phosphorus, nitrogen and other such soluble nutrients and contaminants which can be absorbed by plants.

The advantage of bioretention systems over other WSUD systems is that it leaves lesser footprints than other constructed systems such as wetlands. Other advantages include the fact that it reduces what dirt is left to go through filtration systems. On the other hand, it poses challenges of complication where it has to be used on a larger scale thus the availability of other media even though this could be just as effective. In general, bioretention systems are most advisable when dealing with small areas.

Infiltration trenches/systems: Infiltration trenches are surface excavations which are filled with permeable materials such as rocks or gravels. Their purpose is to create subsurface reservoirs which hold stormwater during runoff and gently release them into nearby soil and underwater systems without distorting their natural pH levels or compositions.

These systems are not built as treatment systems for runoffs but as we have noted fleetingly above, it has the ability to retain materials and sediments which can act as pollutants. They’re also intended to slow the release of runoffs into underwater tables by gently releasing them instead of doing so abruptly by first capturing the runoff and then slowly infiltrating it back into the water table.

Since the function of infiltration systems is the discharge of lightly filtered stormwater back into underground water sources, it is often positioned as the final layer in a WSUD. It also more effective when positioned on flat surface rather than on sloppy or unstable surfaces areas. Geotextile fabrics and laid at the bottom of the excavation to prevent soil going into the rock/gravel fill. It is also advisable where in soils that have good infiltration systems as against usage in soil that is less permeable.

Maintenance is also necessary where this system is used to ensure that infiltration is kept at desired levels and not reduced by clogged residue.

Sand filters: this is a material-based variation to the infiltration system. Material-based in the sense that instead of stones or gravel, the excavation is filled with sand instead. Also, there are installed much deeper than the infiltration systems which are installed higher up than them. It is the last step of filtration before the water drops back into the underground water system. The main difference between an infiltration system and its counterpart, the infiltration system has no plant filter since sand cannot absorb nutrients like the gravel and rock filter.

Porous paving: this filtration system is a more WSUD alternative to normal impervious systems of urban development. It allows runoff of stormwater into the soil or to a water reservoir dedicated for the purpose situated below the surface. It is more appropriate for flat surfaces and areas such as roads, car parks and driveways. This has quite effective filtration properties and improves water quality through removal of contaminant. There are mainly two kinds of porous paving systems and there are the monolith and modular systems.

Importance of WSUD

• One importance of Water Sensitive Urban Design is that where it is effectively done, it reduces the demand for scarcely available water reduces by providing an alternative supply.

• WSUD aids in the improvement of environmental aesthetics. This engenders care and connection to the environment and those who live in it.

• Urban design helps in the reduction and prevention of water related natural disasters such as flooding in areas where it is properly considered and implemented. This is because stormwater runoff is quickly absorbed back into the ground and infiltrated instead of running on the surface thereby reducing their impact on the land and people’s properties.

• Another importance is the care the environment, especially water bodies, receive as a result of the proper implementation of WSUD; they are kept free of contaminants and pollutants as these are already collected by the various WSUD systems in use which collects waste according to their various capacity. Bigger sized pollutants are collected by systems such as the infiltration systems and at most the sand filled system.

• Where it is properly implemented, the Water Sensitive Urban Development removes the burden of water wastage and ensures that all waters are properly utilized and efficiently reused.

In conclusion, this is quiet a new system of engineering, but it nonetheless is one way to care for the environment and help in mitigating the problems of climate change and it is recommended that it should be widely adopted.

BOILER SYSTEMS

If you've ever wondered how buildings manage to keep you warm and cozy during those chilly winter months or provide you with a refreshing hot shower, boilers are the unsung heroes behind the scenes. They play a pivotal role in buildings, acting as the heart of a building's heating and hot water infrastructure. In colder climates, they provide the much-needed warmth to keep occupants comfortable during frosty winters. They also deliver hot water for various purposes, including bathing, cooking, and sanitation. The reliability, efficiency, and safety of boiler systems directly impact the overall success of a construction project, ensuring the well-being and satisfaction of its future occupants.

Whether you're constructing a towering skyscraper or renovating a cozy residential complex, understanding the importance of boiler systems is crucial for ensuring the success and functionality of your project. In this blog post, we aim to shed light on the intricacies of boiler systems and their design.

Definition and Basic Functions of a Boiler System

At its core, a boiler system is a closed vessel that generates heat by burning fuel or utilizing electric resistance. This heat is then transferred to a fluid, typically water, within the boiler. The heated fluid or steam is then circulated throughout the building, providing warmth or hot water for various purposes. Think of a boiler as a giant, efficient kettle, constantly working to keep the building's temperature comfortable.

Different types of boiler systems commonly used in Buildings

There are various types of boiler systems, each designed for specific applications and fuel sources. Let's explore a few common types you may encounter:

1. Fire-tube boilers: These boilers consist of a large, cylindrical shell filled with water and tubes running through it. The heat generated by the combustion process flows through these tubes, transferring it to the water and generating steam. Fire-tube boilers are commonly used in small to medium-sized applications.

2. Water-tube boilers: Unlike fire-tube boilers, water-tube boilers have water-filled tubes and hot gases passing around them. This design allows for higher heat transfer efficiency and is often used in larger applications, such as industrial settings.

3. Electric boilers: Electric boilers use electric resistance to generate heat, eliminating the need for combustion. They are popular in situations where gas or oil fuel sources are limited or impractical.

Key components of Boiler Systems and their roles in the system

Boiler systems consist of several essential components, each serving a crucial role in the overall functionality of the system:

1. Burner: The burner is responsible for igniting the fuel and creating a controlled flame within the boiler. It plays a critical role in efficient combustion and heat generation.

2. Heat exchanger: The heat exchanger allows for the transfer of heat from the combustion gases to the fluid within the boiler. It maximizes the efficiency of the system by ensuring optimal heat transfer.

3. Pump: The pump circulates the heated fluid or steam throughout the building, ensuring a consistent supply of warmth or hot water.

4. Control system: The control system regulates the operation of the boiler, monitoring factors like temperature, pressure, and fuel flow to maintain safe and efficient operation.

Factors to Consider When Selecting a Boiler System

Choosing the right boiler system for your project is a critical decision that can impact both the efficiency and sustainability of your building's heating system. While the technical aspects may seem overwhelming, understanding the key factors involved can help you make an informed choice.

1. Project requirements and heating load calculations

Before diving into the world of boiler systems, it's crucial to assess your project's specific heating requirements. Factors such as the size of the building, the number of rooms, and the desired indoor temperature all play a role in determining the heating load. Conducting thorough heating load calculations will guide you in selecting a boiler system that can meet the demand efficiently without over or under-performing.

2. Energy efficiency and sustainability considerations

In today's environmentally conscious world, energy efficiency and sustainability are paramount. Opting for an energy-efficient boiler system reduces operational costs. Look for boilers with high Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency (AFUE) ratings, as they indicate better fuel utilization and lower energy waste.

3. Space availability and system footprint

The available space for installing your boiler system is a crucial factor to consider. Different boilers come in various sizes and configurations, and their footprint must align with your spatial constraints. For instance, if you have limited space, a compact wall-mounted boiler might be a suitable choice. On the other hand, larger boilers with multiple units may be necessary for larger buildings with ample mechanical rooms.

4. Fuel type and availability

The fuel type of your boiler system depends on various factors, including regional availability, cost, and environmental considerations. Common fuel options include natural gas, propane, oil, and electricity. Natural gas is often favored for its clean-burning properties and widespread availability. Propane and oil are alternatives in areas without a natural gas infrastructure. Electricity, although a clean option, can be costlier. Assess the availability and long-term sustainability of your chosen fuel type before making a decision.

5. Regulatory compliance and safety requirements

When selecting a boiler system, it's crucial to ensure compliance with local regulations and safety standards. Different regions may have specific requirements concerning emissions, efficiency standards, and equipment certifications. Familiarize yourself with these regulations to avoid potential penalties and ensure the safety of your building and its occupants. Working with experienced professionals who are knowledgeable about local codes can help streamline this process.

Design and Installation of Boiler Systems

A well-designed and properly installed boiler system is the backbone of many buildings, providing essential heating and hot water for various applications. Whether you're constructing a new building or considering a boiler system upgrade, it's crucial to understand the key design and installation considerations.

Boiler sizing and capacity determination

Choosing the right boiler size and capacity is vital to meet the heating demands of your building effectively. Factors such as the size of the space, insulation levels, and the number of occupants play a crucial role in determining the appropriate boiler size. A skilled HVAC engineer conducts heat load calculations, considering factors like heat loss through walls, windows, and roofs, to determine the required capacity accurately. By properly sizing your boiler, you can avoid energy waste and ensure optimal comfort.

Proper location and ventilation requirements

The location of the boiler within the building is another critical consideration. It should be placed in a dedicated boiler room or mechanical area, away from high-traffic zones, to ensure safety and minimize disruptions. Adequate ventilation is essential to remove combustion byproducts and prevent the buildup of potentially harmful gases. Ventilation requirements must comply with local codes and regulations, which typically specify the necessary air supply and exhaust systems. Proper ventilation ensures the safe operation of the boiler and maintains indoor air quality.

Piping and distribution system design

The design of the piping and distribution system is crucial for efficient heat transfer and consistent performance. The layout should minimize pressure drops and ensure even heat distribution throughout the building. The choice of pipe material and insulation also impacts the system's energy efficiency. High-quality insulation reduces heat loss and minimizes energy waste, resulting in lower operational costs. Additionally, incorporating valves and control mechanisms allows for zoned heating, providing flexibility and customized comfort in different areas of the building.

Integration with other building systems

A well-designed boiler system should seamlessly integrate with other building systems, such as HVAC and plumbing, to optimize overall efficiency and functionality. Collaborating with professionals who can coordinate these systems ensures a holistic approach to building design. Integration with the HVAC system allows for effective temperature control and enables heat recovery mechanisms, further enhancing energy efficiency. Coordinating with the plumbing system ensures reliable hot water supply and efficient water heating.

Maintenance and Operation of Boiler Systems

Regular Inspection and Maintenance Procedures

Just like a well-tuned car, boilers need periodic inspections and maintenance to keep them running smoothly. Regular inspections allow for the early detection of potential issues, minimizing downtime and costly repairs. It is advisable to have a qualified technician conduct a thorough inspection at least once a year.

Water Treatment and Chemical Considerations

Water quality plays a crucial role in the performance and longevity of boiler systems. Untreated water can lead to mineral deposits, scaling, and corrosion, reducing the efficiency of the system and potentially causing damage. Therefore, it is essential to implement a water treatment program tailored to the specific needs of the boiler.

Safety Protocols and Emergency Shutdown Procedures

Boiler systems operate under high pressures and temperatures, making safety a top priority. It is crucial to have well-defined safety protocols in place and ensure all personnel involved in operating the boiler are trained in these procedures. This includes emergency shutdown procedures to follow in the event of a malfunction, leak, or any hazardous situation.

Regular safety inspections, valve testing, and equipment checks should be conducted to maintain a safe working environment. Additionally, it is vital to have functional carbon monoxide detectors and smoke alarms installed near the boiler system and throughout the building.

The design of a boiler system involves several technical considerations, but they ultimately contribute to the comfort, safety, and energy efficiency of your building. Proper boiler sizing, appropriate location and ventilation, well-designed piping and distribution systems, and integration with other building systems are all crucial elements to achieve optimal performance.

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ENERGY-GENERATING BUILDING COMPONENTS

As the demand for energy continues to rise, the architecture, engineering and construction(AEC) industry plays a pivotal role in reducing the environmental impact of buildings. One of the most promising advancements in this field is the integration of energy-generating building components, which allow structures to harness and utilize renewable energy sources on-site.

So, the goal is basically to have a building that not only provides shelter but also generates its own power, cutting energy bills and moving towards sustainability. This is where energy-generating building components come into play. These innovative technologies enable structures to go beyond being passive consumers of energy and transform into active contributors to the energy grid. By leveraging the power of renewable energy sources, these components revolutionize the way we think about the energy needs of our buildings.

At the forefront of energy-generating building components is photovoltaics, a technology that converts sunlight into electricity. Photovoltaic systems consist of solar panels made up of photovoltaic cells, which capture the sun's energy and convert it into usable electrical power. These solar panels can be seamlessly integrated into various building elements, such as roofs, facades, or even windows, allowing for efficient utilization of available space while maintaining the aesthetic appeal of the structure. This integration of photovoltaics not only reduces reliance on conventional energy sources but also opens up new possibilities for sustainable architecture.

However, photovoltaics are just one piece of the puzzle. Other energy-generating building components, such as wind turbines, solar thermal systems, and kinetic energy harvesters, offer unique opportunities to harness energy from different sources and in diverse ways. Wind turbines, for instance, can be integrated into the design of high-rise buildings or placed strategically in open spaces to capture wind energy and convert it into usable electricity. Similarly, solar thermal systems utilize the sun's heat to generate hot water or provide space heating, reducing the dependency on fossil fuel-based systems. In the following segments, we will explore each of these energy-generating materials in detail.

Photovoltaics: Harnessing Solar Power

Photovoltaic technology is based on the principle of converting sunlight into electricity through the use of solar cells. These cells are typically made of semiconductor materials, such as silicon, which have the unique ability to generate an electric current when exposed to light. When photons from the sun strike the solar cells, they release electrons, creating an electrical current that can be harnessed to power various devices and systems within a building.

Benefits Of Solar Energy

The adoption of solar energy in construction projects brings numerous benefits, both for the environment and building owners. Firstly, solar power helps reduce carbon footprint by offsetting the reliance on traditional energy sources that emit greenhouse gases. By utilizing clean, renewable energy, buildings with photovoltaic systems contribute to a greener future.

Secondly, solar energy offers the advantage of lower energy costs. By generating electricity on-site, buildings can significantly reduce their dependence on the power grid, leading to substantial savings in utility bills. Moreover, in regions with net metering policies, excess energy generated by the photovoltaic system can be fed back into the grid, allowing building owners to earn credits or receive compensation for the surplus energy they produce.

Lastly, photovoltaic systems provide energy independence. With solar power, buildings become less vulnerable to fluctuations in energy prices and grid disruptions. This resilience is particularly crucial in remote areas or during emergencies when a reliable power source is essential.

Integration of photovoltaics into building components

 

To maximize the potential of solar energy, photovoltaics can be seamlessly integrated into various building components. This integration not only enhances the overall aesthetics of the structure but also optimizes the energy-generating capacity. Here are some notable examples:

1. Solar Panels: Traditional solar panels are typically mounted on rooftops or installed on open spaces to capture sunlight efficiently. These panels consist of multiple interconnected solar cells and are capable of generating substantial amounts of electricity.

2. Solar Roof Tiles: Solar roof tiles are an innovative alternative to conventional roofing materials. These tiles, made of durable materials such as glass or polymers, have embedded solar cells, blending seamlessly into the overall design of the building while harnessing solar power.

3. Solar Windows and Facades: Building envelopes can also incorporate transparent solar panels, allowing natural light to enter while generating electricity. These solar windows and facades use specialized materials that maintain the visual clarity and insulation properties while producing renewable energy.

Successful case studies of energy-generating buildings with photovoltaics

Real-life success stories showcase the immense potential of energy-generating buildings with photovoltaics. For instance, the Bahrain World Trade Center features three wind turbines integrated between its twin towers, along with an array of photovoltaic panels. This innovative design generates a significant portion of the building's energy needs, reducing both carbon emissions and energy costs.

Another inspiring example is the SolarLeaf project in Germany, where a building's facade is adorned with microalgae-filled glass panels. These panels capture sunlight and convert it into biomass, which can be used for heat, electricity, and even as a food supplement. This integration of photovoltaics and biological systems highlights the boundless creativity in sustainable building design.

 

Wind Energy: Incorporating Turbines in Buildings

Wind energy is derived from the natural movement of air, which is converted into electricity through the use of wind turbines. Traditionally, wind turbines have been installed in large-scale wind farms, situated in open areas with consistent and strong wind patterns. However, advancements in technology have now made it possible to incorporate wind turbines into the design and construction of buildings, tapping into the renewable energy potential of urban environments.

Advantages and Challenges of Wind Turbines in Urban Environments

In urban areas, the incorporation of wind turbines brings both advantages and challenges. On the positive side, urban landscapes often exhibit higher wind speeds and turbulence due to the presence of tall buildings and other structures. This presents an opportunity to capture wind energy efficiently, thereby reducing reliance on fossil fuel-based electricity.

However, challenges also exist. Urban environments are characterized by complex wind patterns, caused by the interaction of buildings, streets, and other infrastructure. This complexity can affect the performance and efficiency of wind turbines. Additionally, the architectural integration of wind turbines must be carefully planned to ensure their visual aesthetics align with the overall design of the building.

Architectural Integration of Wind Turbines

To overcome these challenges, architects and engineers have developed innovative ways to integrate wind turbines seamlessly into buildings. Two common approaches include vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs) and rooftop wind turbines.

1. Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWTs):

VAWTs have a vertical rotor shaft and are capable of capturing wind from any direction. This design makes them particularly suitable for urban environments, where wind directions can be unpredictable. VAWTs can be incorporated into the façade or structural elements of a building, providing a visually appealing and functional solution for energy generation.

2. Rooftop Wind Turbines:

Rooftop wind turbines are installed on the top of buildings, taking advantage of the unobstructed wind flow at higher altitudes. They can be integrated into existing building structures or included as part of new construction. Rooftop wind turbines are often smaller in size compared to their utility-scale counterparts, making them an ideal option for buildings with limited space.

Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object due to its motion. Imagine the countless footsteps taken on floors or the vehicles driving on roads. All these movements can be harnessed and transformed into a renewable energy source. By incorporating kinetic energy generation systems into building materials, we can unlock the power within motion and significantly contribute to sustainable practices.

Applications of Kinetic Energy in Building Components

1. Piezoelectric Floors

One exciting application of kinetic energy in construction is the utilization of piezoelectric materials in floors. Piezoelectric materials possess the unique ability to convert mechanical stress, such as footsteps or vibrations, into electrical energy. By embedding piezoelectric elements in the flooring system, every step taken by occupants can generate electricity. These energy-generating floors have the potential to power various low-energy devices within the building, such as lighting or sensors.

2. Kinetic Tiles and Pavers

Another innovative approach to harvesting kinetic energy is through the use of kinetic tiles and pavers. These specialized tiles or pavers incorporate mechanisms that convert the mechanical force from footsteps or vehicle traffic into usable electrical energy. These tiles can be installed in high-traffic areas, such as sidewalks or plazas, to capture the movement of pedestrians or vehicles. By tapping into this abundant source of energy, buildings can reduce their reliance on traditional power sources and lower their carbon footprint.

Benefits of Kinetic Energy

The integration of kinetic energy generation systems in construction projects brings forth a multitude of benefits. Firstly, it provides a renewable energy source that can supplement or even replace traditional electricity supply. This leads to reduced reliance on fossil fuels and a decrease in greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, kinetic energy generation within buildings promotes energy self-sufficiency and resilience, especially in areas prone to power outages or remote locations with limited access to the electrical grid.

At JPC Design Consortium, we pride ourselves on being at the forefront of cutting-edge solutions engineering. As a forward-thinking company, we are committed to incorporating the latest advancements in engineering design and construction practices into our projects.